Answer: 4 HCl (g) + O₂ (g) → 2 Cl₂ (g) + 2 H₂O (l)
Explanation:
4 moles of hydrogen chloride (note that it is in the gaseous phase, otherwise it would be hydrochloric acid) react with 1 mole of oxygen gas to form 2 moles of chlorine gas and 2 moles of liquid water.
To conform with the law of conservation of mass, the equation must be balanced, this means that there must be the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow.
Is this helpful?
The balanced chemical reaction is:
4 HCl (g) + O₂ (g) → 2 Cl₂ (g) + 2 H₂O (l)
In first place, chlorine is heated with oxygen to form dichlorine monoxide gas. Then, this can be expressed as:
HCl (g) + O₂ (g) → Cl₂ (g) + H₂O (l)
On the other side, the Law of Conservation of Matter is also called the law of conservation of mass or the Law of Lomonósov-Lavoisier. This law postulates that "The mass is not created or destroyed, only transformed."
Then, the number of atoms that are present in the reagents has to be equal to the number of atoms present in the products.
Finally, the balanced chemical reaction is:
4 HCl (g) + O₂ (g) → 2 Cl₂ (g) + 2 H₂O (l)
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https://brainly.com/question/15400776?referrer=searchResultshttps://brainly.com/question/13911443?referrer=searchResultshttps://brainly.com/question/13979405https://brainly.com/question/24209700?referrer=searchResultsWhich statement best describes mechanical energy?
A.the energy of heat and magnetism
B.the energy of electricity and motion
C.the energy of moving parts and motion
D.the energy of electricity and heat
Answer:
the answer is B.
Explanation:
your welcome
Answer:
the answer is B
Explanation:
i have the same exact questionn
What is the change in enthalpy when 90.6 g
of steam at 100◦C is converted to liquid water
at the same temperature and pressure? The
heat of vaporization of water is 40.7 kJ/mole.
The change in enthalpy when 90.6 g of steam at 100◦C is converted to liquid water at the same temperature and pressure is 204.7 KJ
How do i determine the change in enthalpy?First, we shall obtain the number of mole water converted to steam. details below:
Mass of water = 90.6 grams Molar mass of water = 18 g/mol Mole of water =?Mole = mass / molar mass
Mole of water = 90.6 / 18
Mole of water = 5.03 moles
Finally, we shall determine the change in enthalpy. Details below:
Mole of water (n) = 5.03 molesHeat of vaporization (ΔHv) = 40.7 KJ/molChange in enthalpy (ΔH) =?ΔH = n × ΔHv
ΔH = 5.03 × 40.7
ΔH = 204.7 KJ
Thus, we can conclude that the change in enthalpy is 204.7 KJ
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a. Analysis of the potassium ion content in a food sample yielded the following data: % K: 3.09, 4, 2.775, 2.5, 3.80 Calculate the standard deviation of the sample. Show all calculations and indicate the answer to the correct amount of significant figures.
The standard deviation of the sample is 0.579, rounded to the correct number of significant figures.
To calculate the standard deviation of the sample, we need to follow these steps:
Calculate the mean (average) of the data set.To find the mean, we sum up all the data points and divide by the number of data points. Let's calculate it:
(3.09 + 4 + 2.775 + 2.5 + 3.80) / 5 = 16.165 / 5 = 3.233
Subtract the mean from each data point.To do this, we subtract the mean (3.233) from each data point and square the result:
(3.09 - 3.233)^2 = 0.020049
(4 - 3.233)^2 = 0.586489
(2.775 - 3.233)^2 = 0.209025
(2.5 - 3.233)^2 = 0.537289
(3.80 - 3.233)^2 = 0.323329
Calculate the variance.To find the variance, we sum up the squared differences from step 2 and divide by the number of data points:
(0.020049 + 0.586489 + 0.209025 + 0.537289 + 0.323329) / 5 = 1.676181 / 5 = 0.3352362
Take the square root of the variance to get the standard deviation.√0.3352362 = 0.579 (rounded to three significant figures)
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balance the equation P + O2 → P4O10
a chemical reaction produced 2.50 moles of nitrogen gas. what volume in liters, does this gas sample occupy at STP? (show your work)
The volume of N₂ at STP=56 L
Further explanationGiven
2.5 moles of N₂
Required
The volume of the gas
Solution
Conditions at T 0 ° C and P 1 atm are stated by STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure). At STP, the volume per mole of gas or the molar volume-Vm is 22.4 liters/mol.
So for 2.5 moles gas :
\(\tt 2.5\times 22.4=56~L\)
I'll give you the brainiest please help.
Answer:
c
Explanation:
How many grams of F are in 585 g CaF₂?
Magnesium phosphide (Mg3P2) is made when magnesium metal is heated with excess solid phosphorous (P4). What mass of the excess reagent is left over, when 8.00 g of magnesium is heated with 8.00 g of solid phosphorous?
Mass of excess reagent remaining after completion of reaction
The mass of the excess reagent remaining after completion of reaction, given that 8 g of magnesium is heated with 8 g of phosphorous is 0.98 g
How do i determine the mass of the excess reagent remaining?First, we shall obtain the mass of the excess reagent that reacted. This is shown below:
6Mg + P₄ -> 2Mg₃P₂
Molar mass of Mg = 24.3 g/molMass of Mg from the balanced equation = 6 × 24.3 = 145.8 g Molar mass of P₄ = 124 g/molMass of P₄ from the balanced equation = 1 × 124 = 124 gFrom the balanced equation above,
145.8 g of Mg reacted with 124 g of P₄
Therefore,
8 g of Mg will react with = (8 × 124) / 145.8 = 7.02 g of P₄
Finally, we shall obtain the mass of the excess reagent remaining after the reaction. Details below:
Mass of excess reagent, P₄ given = 8.00 gMass of excess reagent, P₄ that reacted = 7.02 gMass of excess reagent, P₄ remaining =?Mass of excess reagent, P₄ remaining = Mass given - mass reacted
= 8 - 7.02
= 0.98 g
Thus, the mass of the excess reagent remaining after the reaction is 0.98 g
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please help me please
Answer:
Two advantages are: Its cheap and it is a renewable energy source. Two disadvantages are it's not windy everyday and it will take up a lot of space for windmills.
Explanation:
PLEASE ANSWER QUICKLY!!
100 NaNO3
90
Solute per 100 g of H₂O (g)
0,80
NH,CI
70 KNO3
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)
KCIO3
60 g KNO3 has
been added to
100 g H₂O at
30 °C. What
type of solution
is this?
A. unsaturated
B. saturated
C. supersaturated
If 60 grams of the substance are added to 100 g of water, the solution can be categorized as supersaturated.
How saturated is this solution?The graph shows the number of grams that can be dissolved in 100 grams of water at different temperatures. In general, solubility increases with temperature.
According to the graph, at a temperature of 30°C, it is possible to dissolve a total of 48 to 49 grams of \(KNO_{3}\). This information implies that if we add 60 grams at this temperature not all the substance would be dissolved, and therefore the solution would be supersaturated.
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Calculate the pH if [H+] = 4.51 x 10^-4 M
Explanation:
To perform calculations involving the pH of a solution, we can use the following logarithmic equation:
pH = - log [H3O+] or pH = - log [H+]
In calculations involving the pH of a solution, we always use logarithm to base 10.
In this case, we have:
[H+] = 4.51 x 10^-4 M
So:
pH = -log 4.51 x 10^-4
pH = 4 - log 4.51
pH = 4 - 0.65
pH = 3.35
Answer: pH = 3.35
Help with classifying chemical reactions
Answer:
I'm really am badly sorry but I don't know how to answer this one.....
Answer:
l'm very sorry I don't know the answer
Describe four real life examples of the results of scientific investigation
The findings of scientific investigation can be seen in four real-world situations:
Pluto to not be a planet,compost,surgery,illness remediesExplain about the scientific investigation?Finding the answer to a topic through a variety of research techniques is the process of conducting a scientific investigation.
An investigation typically starts when a person analyzes their surroundings and poses questions they are unsure of the answers to. After that, they conduct additional observations or design an experiment to verify a theory. Observational research in science can involve, for instance, describing in-depth observations of a cell under a microscope. Some scientific studies are experimental; an illustration would be administering a chemical to a cell while observing changes in the conduct of the cell.Thus, the findings of scientific investigation can be seen in four real-world situations:
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Taking the following information based on a catalytic reaction
Reaction Rate. [ Catalyst]
0.01428497 0.0001835590
0.00714248 0.0000847617
0.0000611800 0.00357124 0.0000238200 0.00178388 The order of the reaction based n the catalyst is Select one: a. 0.93 b. 1.00 C. 2.0 d. 2.1 e. 0.90 O f. 1.1 g. 1.5
The process of catalysis which involves adding a catalyst to a chemical reaction, increases the rate of the reaction.
Thus, Catalysts are not destroyed during the reaction and are unaffected by it. Very tiny amounts of catalyst are frequently sufficient when the reaction is swift and the catalyst recycles quickly; mixing, surface area, and temperature are key factors in reaction rate.
In order to regenerate the catalyst, it usually reacts with one or more reactants to produce intermediates that then give off the ultimate reaction product.
Homogeneous catalysis, in which all of the components are dispersed in the same phase as the reactant (often a gas or liquid), and heterogeneous catalysis, in which the components are not.
Thus, The process of catalysis which involves adding a catalyst to a chemical reaction, increases the rate of the reaction.
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Sort the five steps of the scientific method.
State problem
Conduct experiment
Interpret data
Draw conclusion
Form hypothesis
The correct order of the five steps of the scientific method is as follows:
State problem
Form hypothesis
Conduct experiment
Interpret data
Draw conclusion.
The scientific method is a systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and understand the natural world. The five steps of the scientific method, in their logical order, are as follows:
State problem: In this step, the scientist identifies and defines a specific question or problem to be investigated. The problem should be clear and well-defined to guide the rest of the scientific process.
Form hypothesis: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction for the problem stated in step one. It is an educated guess that can be tested through experiments and observations. The hypothesis should be based on prior knowledge and observations.
Conduct experiment: In this step, the scientist designs and performs experiments to test the hypothesis. The experiment is carefully planned and executed, and data is collected through observations and measurements.
Interpret data: Once the experiment is completed, the scientist analyzes the collected data. This involves organizing, graphing, and statistically analyzing the data to identify patterns and trends.
Draw conclusion: Based on the interpretation of the data, the scientist draws conclusions about whether the hypothesis is supported or not. The conclusions should be objective and supported by evidence obtained from the experiment.
It's important to note that while these steps are presented in a linear order, the scientific process is often iterative, with scientists revisiting and refining hypotheses, conducting further experiments, and building upon existing knowledge.
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2. What effect does temperature have on the strength of a magnet?
Answer:
The more the temperature the less the effect if magnet
2) Why does the bottle collapse when sitting on the counter?
a) The inside and outside pressures on the bottle are equal
b) Pressure atmosphere < pressure of gas in bottle
c) Vapor pressure is crushing the bottle
d) Pressure atmosphere > pressure of gas in bottle ?
Answer:
vapour and I like
Explanation:
Mark brainliest
The bottle collapse when sitting on the counter as a result of the Pressure atmosphere > pressure of gas in bottle.
What is Pressure?This is defined as the force exerted on an object per unit area.
Pressure= Force/Area.
Pressure of the atmosphere exerts a greater force on the walls of the bottle thereby leading to a collapse as a result of the pressure of air in it being lesser.
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A rock occupies a volume of 20 cm and has a mass of 54 g find the density of this rock
Answer:
The answer is
2.70 g/cm³Explanation:
The density of a substance can be found by using the formula
\(density = \frac{mass}{volume} \\\)
From the question
mass = 54 g
volume = 20 cm³
The density is
\(density = \frac{54}{20} = \frac{27}{10} \\ \)
We have the final answer as
2.70 g/cm³Hope this helps you
NEED ASAP!
What is the resolution of a monochromator, Δλeff, with a exit slit width of 500 micrometers and a \(D^{-1}\) of 1.8 nm/mm? Express the answer in nm.
The resolution of the monochromator is 3.6nm
What is a MonochromatorA monochromator is an optical device that is used to isolate a specific wavelength or range of wavelengths of light from a broader spectrum of light. It is typically used in spectroscopy, where the goal is to measure the intensity of light at a specific wavelength or over a range of wavelengths.
The resolution of a monochromator, Δλeff, is given by the equation: Δλeff = (D^-1) * (exit slit width)
Plugging in the given values:
Δλeff = (1.8 nm/mm) * (500 micrometers)
Converting micrometers to millimeters:
Δλeff = (1.8 nm/mm) * (0.5 mm)
Δλeff = 3.6 nm
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How would doubling the height of an object change the object's potential
energy?
A. The potential energy would not change.
B. The potential energy would double.
C. The potential energy would decrease by half.
D. The potential energy would increase by a factor of 4.
SUBMIT
Consider this reaction:3Ca(s)+2H3PO4(aq)=Ca3(PO4)2(s)+3H2(g)How many grams of calcium are required to produce 50.500 g of calcium phosphate (MW = 310.19g/mol) assuming an excess of Phosphoric acid?
Answer
19.6 grams
Explanation
Given:
Mass of calcium phosphate produced = 50.500 g
Equation: 3Ca(s) + 2H3PO4(aq) ---> Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 3H2(g)
What to find:
The grams of calcium required to produce 50.500 g of calcium phosphate.
Step-by-step solution:
From the equation, 3 mol Ca produce 1 mol Ca3(PO4)2
1 mole Ca3(PO4)2 = 310.19 grams
1 mole Ca = 40.078 grams
This means, (3 x 40.078 g) = 120.234 g Ca produce 310.19 g Ca3(PO4)2
So x grams Ca will be required to produce 50.500 grams Ca3(PO4)2
x grams Ca will be equal
\(\frac{50.500\text{ }g}{310.19\text{ }g}\times120.234g\text{ }Ca=19.6\text{ }grams\text{ }Ca\)The grams of calcium required to produce 50.500 g of calcium phosphate = 19.6 grams
In the reaction 2 RbNO3 → 2 RbNO2 + O2 , how many liters of oxygen are producedwhen 5.0 moles of rubidium nitrate decompose?
According to the explanation given in our previous session, now we have a similar question but with a slight difference, but first let's set up the reaction:
2 RbNO3 -> 2 RbNO2 + O2
We have 5.0 moles of RbNO3
From the molar ratio we see that 2 moles of RbNO3 is equal to 1 mol of O2, therefore if we have 5 moles of RbNO3, we will have 2.5 moles of O2 being produced.
Since the question is asking "how many liters" we have to assume that we are dealing with gases and these gases are at STP (standard temperature and pressure), which is T = 273K and P = 1 atm, in these specfici conditions, 1 mol of gases will have a volume of 22.4 Liters, therefore if O2 has 2.5 moles of O2
1 mol = 22.4L
2.5 moles = x L
x = 56 Liters of O2 are being produced with 5.0 moles of RbNO3
The gas phase reaction of H2 with CO2 To produce H2O and CO has…
(Refer to the image, please)
The given reaction has ΔG value -12207KJ. Therefore, the given reaction is a spontaneous reaction as value of ΔG is negative.
A spontaneous process refers to anything that happens by itself, without external energy input. A ball is going to roll down an incline, water will flow downhill, ice will melt into water, radioactive elements will decay, and iron will rust, for instance. It is impossible for a reaction to not be spontaneous if it is exothermic (H negative) and increases the entropy for the system (S positive). The system's overall heat capacity is measured in enthalpy. The system's unpredictability is gauged by entropy.
ΔG=ΔH-T×ΔS
ΔG=11-298×41
= -12207KJ
Since ΔG is negative, reaction is spontaneous
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3. A Wilkinson’s catalyst is widely used in the hydrogenation of alkenes. Show a catalytic cycle, including: i. chemical structure of the catalyst, with complete stereochemistry ii. molecular geometry of catalyst iii. type of reactions involved iv. the appropriate starting material, reagent and solvent v. major and minor end-products vi. all intermediates, for each reaction stated in (iii)
We can see here that the catalytic cycle for the hydrogenation of alkenes using Wilkinson's catalyst involves several steps.
What are the steps involved?Here's an overview of the catalytic cycle, including the necessary details:
i. Chemical structure of the catalyst:
Wilkinson's catalyst, also known as chloridotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium(I), has the following chemical structure: [RhCl(PPh3)3]
ii. Molecular geometry of the catalyst:
The Wilkinson's catalyst has a trigonal bipyramidal geometry around the rhodium center. The three triphenylphosphine (PPh3) ligands occupy equatorial positions, while the chloride (Cl) ligand occupies an axial position.
iii. Type of reactions involved:
The catalytic cycle involves several reactions, including:
Oxidative addition: The rhodium center undergoes oxidative addition, reacting with molecular hydrogen (H2) to form a dihydride intermediate.Alkene coordination: The alkene substrate coordinates to the rhodium center, forming a π-complex.Hydrogenation: The coordinated alkene undergoes hydrogenation, resulting in the addition of hydrogen atoms to the double bond and formation of a metal-alkyl intermediate.Reoxidation: The metal-alkyl intermediate reacts with a hydrogen molecule to regenerate the rhodium dihydride species.iv. Starting material, reagent, and solvent:
The starting material is an alkene, and the reagent is Wilkinson's catalyst ([RhCl(PPh3)3]). The reaction is typically carried out in a suitable solvent, such as dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) or tetrahydrofuran (THF).
v. Major and minor end-products:
The major end-product of the hydrogenation reaction is the fully saturated alkane, resulting from the addition of hydrogen across the double bond. The minor end-product may include cis- or trans-configured alkanes if the original alkene substrate possesses geometric isomers.
vi. Intermediates:
The intermediates in the catalytic cycle include:
Rhodium dihydride complex: [RhH2(PPh3)3]Alkene-Rhodium π-complex: [Rh(η2-alkene)(PPh3)3]Metal-alkyl intermediate: [Rh(alkyl)(PPh3)3]These intermediates play a crucial role in facilitating the hydrogenation reaction and enabling the catalytic cycle to proceed.
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A reaction between liquid reactants occurs at 26.0-degree celsius in a sealed, evacuated vessel with a measured volume of 45.0L. Measurements show that the reaction produced 15g of chlorine pentafluoride gas. Calculate the pressure of chlorine pentafluoride gas in a reaction vessel after the reaction. You may ignore the volume of the liquid reactants—round your answer to 2 significant digits.
Ideal gas law is valid only for ideal gas not for vanderwaal gas. Therefore, the pressure of chlorine pentafluoride gas in a reaction vessel after the reaction is 0.06atm.
What is ideal gas equation?Ideal gas equation is the mathematical expression that relates pressure, volume and temperature.
Mathematically,
PV=nRT
where,
P = pressure=?
V= volume= 45.0L
n =number of moles=15g÷130.45 g/mol=0.11moles
T =temperature = 26.0°C=26.0°C+273.15=300K
R = Gas constant = 0.0821 L.atm/K.mol
P × 45.0L =0.11moles × 0.0821 L.atm/K.mol × 300K
P =0.06atm
Therefore, the pressure of chlorine pentafluoride gas in a reaction vessel after the reaction is 0.06atm.
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Why is KMnO4 regarded as a secondary standard solution ?
Potassium permanganate is not used as primary standard because is not able to release in MnO2 in the reaction. According to the above discussion, we conclude KMnO4 is used as the secondary standard. It is also hygroscopic in nature.
What is Secondary Standard solution?
A solution created especially for a certain analysis is known as a secondary standard solution. A substance whose active agent contents have been identified by comparison with a primary standard is referred to as a secondary standard. This indicates that it is frequently standardized against a fundamental standard.
Analytical tools and methodologies are calibrated using secondary standard solutions.
The molecular formula of potassium permanganate is KMnO4. Potassium permanganate is one of the oxidising agents in chemistry. Potassium permanganate is not used as primary standard because is not able to release in MnO2 in the reaction. Potassium permanganate is always in the stable form. The reason KMnO4 is also used as a colour indicator in analysis.
According to the above discussion, we conclude KMnO4 is used as the secondary standard. It is also hygroscopic in nature.
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An anion X-3 has 31 nucleons and has atomic numbe equal to 15. The number of electron having m = 0 i it, is:-
Answer: 23
Explanation:
because it is been multiplyed by 3 has s 31 nucleons and has atomic numbe equal to 15. The number of electron having m = 0 i
Answer:
The number of electrons with magnetic quantum number m = 0 can be calculated from the atomic number of the element. The atomic number gives the number of protons, and thus the number of electrons in a neutral atom. For the anion X-3, we have 15 - 3 = 12 electrons. The magnetic quantum number m can have integer values from -j to +j, where j is a half-integer representing the total angular momentum quantum number of the electron. In this case, j can be equal to 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, and so on. For the lowest value of j, which is 1/2, the magnetic quantum number m can have two values, +1/2 and -1/2. Thus, there are two electrons with m = 0. The number of electrons with m = 0 is equal to the number of electrons in the lowest energy level, which is the 1s orbital. In this case, two electrons occupy the 1s orbital, and both have m = 0.
Explanation:
7.5 L of a gas at 2 ATM and a temperature of 75°C is changed and volume to 3.4 L and a pressure of .5 ATM what is the new temperature
Answer:
Explanation:
Combined Gas Law
T2= T1P2V2/ (P1V1) = 348.15 X .5 X 3.4/(2 X 7.5) =39.46 K or -233.69C
Write the name or the formula of the following compounds:
a. (Co(ClO3)4(NO2))Cl (N in NO2 is underlined)
b. K(Co(SO4)(NH2CH2CH2NH2)2(CN)) (N in CN is underlined)
c. sodium carbonyldiisothriocyanatotrinitritochromate(III)
b. amminediaquatrihydroxidochromium(VI) nitrate
The molecular formula for a molecular compound's molecular formula lists the variety of atoms that make up the molecule. The name of the compound (Co(ClO₃)₄(NO₂))Cl is tetrachloridobis(nitrito-O)cobalt(III) chloride.
The name or the formula of the following compounds are:
The name of the compound (Co(ClO₃)₄(NO₂))Cl is tetrachloridobis(nitrito-O)cobalt(III) chloride.
The name of the compound K(Co(SO₄)(NH₂CH₂CH₂NH₂)₂(CN)) is potassium bis(ethylenediamine)dihydroxidocyanidocobaltate(III) sulfate.
The formula of the compound sodium carbonyldiisothriocyanatotrinitritochromate(III) is Na[Cr(NCS)₂(NO₂)₃(CO)].
The formula of the compound amminediaquatrihydroxidochromium(VI) nitrate is [Cr(OH)₄(NH₃)₂(H₂O)₂]NO₃.
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Besides the major types of radioactive decay, there are two others: positron emission and electron capture.
1. Compare and contrast positrons with electrons.
2.Explain how positron emission works and how it causes transmutations.
3. Explain how electron capture works and how it causes transmutations.
4. Compare the transmutations caused by positron emissions and electron capture.
positron emission and electron capture both occur in specific radioactive decays and are associated with unstable nuclei. They play a crucial role in balancing the ratio of protons to neutrons in a nucleus, leading to more stable configurations.
Positrons and electrons are both subatomic particles with opposite charges. Positrons have a positive charge (+1), while electrons have a negative charge (-1). They have the same mass, which is approximately 9.1 x 10^-31 kilograms.
However, positrons and electrons differ in their origins. Positrons are the antiparticles of electrons, meaning they have the same mass but opposite charge. Positrons are typically produced in certain radioactive decays, while electrons are ubiquitous in atoms and play a fundamental role in chemical reactions.
Positron emission occurs when a proton inside an unstable nucleus is converted into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino. This process reduces the atomic number by one while maintaining the mass number. The positron is ejected from the nucleus, carrying away the positive charge.
The positron can cause transmutations by colliding with an electron in the vicinity. The collision results in the annihilation of both particles, converting their masses into energy in the form of gamma rays. This annihilation process contributes to medical imaging techniques like PET scans.
Electron capture happens when an unstable nucleus captures an electron from its electron cloud. The captured electron combines with a proton in the nucleus, resulting in the formation of a neutron and a neutrino. This process also reduces the atomic number by one while preserving the mass number.
Electron capture causes transmutations by changing the composition of the nucleus. By capturing an electron, the number of protons decreases, transforming the element into another one with a lower atomic number.
Positron emissions and electron capture both result in the reduction of atomic number by one. However, positron emission involves the release of a positron from the nucleus, while electron capture involves the capture of an electron by the nucleus. The overall effect is the same—a decrease in atomic number.
Furthermore, positron emission and electron capture both occur in specific radioactive decays and are associated with unstable nuclei. They play a crucial role in balancing the ratio of protons to neutrons in a nucleus, leading to more stable configurations.
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